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1970s
Politics and Law The Presidents Richard Nixon *Besides Watergate, Nixon was well known for the "Nixon Shock," a series of actions aimed at economic reform. This most dramatic of these changes was the removal of the "gold standard," that is, U.S. currency was no longer directly convertible to gold (Foner, 1094). 1 *Re-elected in 1972 in a landslide victory over George McGovern (1094). *Watergate: The Watergate scandal would erupt when a group of men were caught breaking into the Watergate complex in Washington D.C. Nixon's White House aide testified that Nixon had a taping system in the Oval Office that recorded his talks with visitors. Amidst the controversy, Nixon vowed to stay in office, but eventually resigned (1092). Gerald Ford *Ford was first appointed to Vice-President after the resignation of Spiro Agnew in 1973 (1092). *After the resignation of Nixon in August of 1974, Ford became the first person to gain presidency without first being elected into either Vice-President or Presidential office (1092). Jimmy Carter *Carter was not a well known name at the beginning of the 1976 presidential campaigns. This may have helped gain him support because many other candidates were in some way connected to the Watergate scandal (1096). *In the presidential race, Carter began with a large lead against the incumbent Ford, and though it would become a closer race as time went on, Carter would prevail and become the 39th President of the U.S. (1096). Landmark Court Cases and Laws Swann v. Charlotte-Mecklenburg Board of Education : In this 1971 Supreme Court case, it was declared that bussing be used to help de-segregate southern schools. It was also a step towards giving all students an equal opportunity at education, no matter their race or distance from a school. It's important to note that this was a step towards de-segregation, not necessarily integration (1086). Griggs v. Duke Power Company : In this case in 1971, the Supreme Court ruled that the requirements for hiring at the Duke Power Company were discriminatory towards African American workers. The written exams that the company was requiring applicants to complete were deemed unconstitutional by the Supreme Court because they existed to exclude non-white workers (1086). Title IX : Title IX of the Education Amendments of 1972 was passed on June 23rd, 1972. The law banned gender discrimination in higher education. Title IX is also attributed with vastly expanding the scope of athletic opportunities for women (1087). Equal Credit Opportunity Act : This act that was passed in 1974 stated that all persons, no matter their race, religion, gender, marital status, or age can obtain their own individual credit. Those institutions that failed to comply with the act and discriminated against any persons because of their qualities above would be fined and face class action (1087). Wars and Foreign Relations Responses to Vietnam * After the failed war effort in Vietnam, thousands of troops desert the army around 1971. Many of these troops return home and help plan/participate in anti-war rallies across the nation (1090). * In 1971, the Times started publication of the Pentagon Papers. These documents revealed how U.S. presidents had misled the public about involvement in Vietnam all the way back to World War II. Nixon attempted to halt publication of such papers, but the Supreme Court rejected his plea (1091). * 1973 the formal Paris Peace Accords are signed. These documents were intended to stop the fighting in Vietnam, and end U.S. involvement (1091). * For their involvement in the Peace Accords, Henry Kissinger (then U.S. National Security Advisor) and L e Duc Tho, a Vietnamese diplomat, were awarded the Nobel Peace Prize in 1973. The two had been having secret talks since 1969 about coming to a ceasefire in Vietnam, and since there was no actual peace at the time, Tho refused the Prize (1091). * War Powers Act enacted in 1973. This act required the President to get congressional approval for any committment of troops overseas. There still existed an exception for the President to immediately take action if "a national emergency created by attack upon the United States, its territories or possessions, or its armed forces" occurs (1091). * Jimmy Carter believed that the post-Vietnam U.S. needs to de-emphasize Cold War thinking. He wanted the country to move away from bitter rivalry, and into cooperation and collaboration with other countries, even former enemies (1099). New Relations and Interventions *In 1971, Henry Kissinger secretly flew to China. In 1972, Nixon himself did. These personal visits helped strengthen ties between the two nations and increased trade as well (1089). *In 1972 Nixon became the first president to visit the Soviet Union. As with China, this visit also worked to increase trade between the two countries (1089). *The U.S. and the Soviet Union sign the Anti-Ballistic Missile Treaty which prohibited both sides from developing and deploying anti-missile batteries. This would mean that neither side could attack with nuclear weapons without fear of equally deadly return fire (1089). *In South America in 1973, the U.S. sent in CIA agents to destabalize the socialist regime in Chile. Nixon feared Chile would become like Cuba, and so he supported the opponents of then president Salvadore Allende. Constant clashes between the socialist executives and the conservative congress led to an eventual coup (1088). *In 1975, the Helsinki Accords are signed by 35 countries. These documents were the first recognization of post-WWII borders (1097). *Again in South America, this time the country of Argentina, another intervention occurs. In 1978, Jimmy Carter ordered the U.S. to cut off aid to Argentina because of their lack of observance of human rights (1099). Culture and Society : Fight for Equality : American up-rise for equality was a top priority for minorities in the 1970's. Direct protest by Native Americans, Latinos, college students, women, gay/lesbians, environmentalists and others were arising. They drew majority of their motivation to stand up against unjust laws from the black freedom struggle and its success in the prior years (Roark, 709). Groups such as the "Trail of Broken Treaties" created by Native Americans in 1972, La Raza Unida (the United Race) created by Mexican Americans in 1970, the National Gay and Lesbian Task Force founded in 1973, and the EPA (Environmental Protection Agency) started by Richard Nixon in 1970 started to erupt all over the country (710, 712, 713, 714). Aside from the EPA, these groups were organized to promote equality among race and gender. In 1973, Roe vs. Wade allowed women the right to an abortion in the early stages of pregnancy (715). One year before this, Title IX was created. It banned sex discrimination in all aspects of education (718). The 70's were a great time for female progression toward full equality. War Opposition : Opposition to the American war movement arose in the 70's as well. In 1971, the New York Times published the Pentagon Papers. The paper revealed the secret government documents consisting mostly of an internal study of the war with Vietnam beginning in 1967. This was only part of the strong anti-war movement going on in the United States. More than 60% of the country thought it was a mistake to send troops to Vietnam and after the Pentagon Papers, the numbers increased (741). Marriage : With the change of the traditional American family (wife as a housekeeper and husband out at work) toward one with both spouces working, the divorce rate within the United States doubled during the 1970's. Half of all the marriages ended in a divorce during this time. The overall structure of American marriage changed as a result of this. Many people either never married or postponed their marriage until late into a period where they were already bearing children (Brands, 843, 844). Science and Technology New Science of Ecology : Ecology is the science science of the interrelatedness of the natural world. Ecology evolved from the environmentalists movement whose goal was to preserve nature because it was too beautiful to destroy. The environmentalists argued that all elements of the earth's environment are linked, and damaging any one of these elements risks damaging all the others. Funded by the government agencies, universities, foundations, and eventually some corporations, ecological science gradually established itself as a significant field of science in the 1970's. This new scientific filed led to many technological changes in the way America produced goods (Brinkley 848-9). : Barry Commoner is a politically involved biologist who published his book The Closing Circle in 1971. Barry argued in his book that modern society was asking for disaster by trying to "improve on nature". The focus of the book was aimed at American farmers who were switching to artificial fertilizers in order to significantly increase their crop yield. These artificial fertilizers consumed large amounts of energy, left soil sterile, and polluted near by water sources. By the 1970's chemical discharges from these fertilizers had essentially killed Lake Erie. This fertilizer technology many have given farmers a profit quickly, but the toxic chemicals were killing the environment (Davidson 855). Silent Spring, ''a book by Rachel Carson, was also written to protect nature. ''Silent Spring was ''very influential in the decision to ban DDT in the United States in 1972. DDT is a pesticide used by farmers to increase their crop yield, but it has a detrimental effect on the environment. The banning of DDT was evidence of the growing science of Ecology (Brinkley 848). thumb|300px|right|Earth Day 1970 Earth Day : On April 22, 1970 citizens gathered all over the United States in schools and universities, in churches, clubs, and in parks for the first Earth Day. Over 20 million Americans were estimated to have participated in a part of the Earth Day observations. This event may have been the single largest demonstration in the nation's history. Earth Day is a day intended to raise public awareness for the earth's natural environment. This event sparked the beginning of the environmentalists movement and helped solidify the scientific field of ecology (Brinkley 849). Nuclear Energy : When President Carter took office more than 200 nuclear plants were operational or on order. In 1979 the Three Mile Island plant released a large amount of radioactive steam into the atmosphere. This event caused 100,000 people to evacuate their homes. The recent growth of the environmental movement promoted public skepticism around the scientific experts who advocated the promise of technological innovations without concern for the consequences. The Three Mile Island disaster reinforced fears of environmental hazards associated with nuclear energy. This ended the expansion of the nuclear power plant industry (Davidson 653). Energy Crisis : In the 1970's the United States need for Middle Eastern oil created a dependance on foreign sources for energy. Low oil prices were discouraging conservation of fuels or technological advances in the use of alternative energy sources. When troops from Egypt and Syria attacked Israel, the seven members of OPEC imposed a boycott of oil to anyone viewed as friendly friendly toward Israel. From October 1973 to March 1974, the price of oil went from 2$ a barrel in 1972 to over 12$ by 1976 in the United States (Davidson 553). These higher oil prices would have been less of a problem if the 30 years of Cold War militarization had not effected key components of the United States economy. Encouraged by large government contracts, American businesses involved in electronics and aviation had focused their capital resources and technology on producing military weapons and equipment (Rosenzweig 686). In 1976 congress addressed the energy crisis by ordering electric utilities to switch from expensive oil to more abundant and cheaper coal. Although coal is more economical, it causes more pollution than any other energy source. The new legislation also ordered the auto industry to improve the fuel efficiency of its cars and create a reserve of petroleum to manage future disruptions on a short-term basis (Davidson 655). Until 1970 General Motors was the largest manufacturing company in the world. failure to build fuel-efficient cars cost GM more than 15% of the United States automobile market in a single decade. GM now lags behind foreign competitors (Rosenzweig 690). New Innovation In the 1970's a number of technology advances in telecommunications and super highways funded by the federal government enabled businesses to build small, highly efficient factories and warehouses. These advances in Telecommunications, transportation, as well as the use of air-conditiong made regions more suitable for office work than they had previously been. This started a trend of outsourcing production in the United Sates, and caused the manufacturing base, as well as the expertise of workers, managers, and engineers, to dissolve (Rosenzweig 690). The introduction of laser printers connected to computers were also playing a significant role in productivity. These laser printers cut the number of printers needed down to half and allowed a single person to do double the amount of work (Rosenzweig 689). Commerce and the Economy *During the 1970’s interest rates drastically increased from 6% to 13%. *This was a period of high demand and low supply, causing the recession. *The return of soldiers from Vietnam contributed to the high unemployment rate. *The women taking over the work force also contributed to the unemployment for men. *In 1971 President Nixon effectively canceled the Bretton Woods System of international finance exchange. *People became nervous about being able to use energy sources with inflation and costs rising during this decade (Clarke). *In 1973 the Arab Oil Embargo against America caused a recession, making oil prices rise and making people uncertain of future oil availability. *During the 1970’s the economic growth rate was greatly staggered. *Inflation and unemployment lead to a sluggish economy. *In 73'-74' the stock market crashed and caused the dollar to be de-valued. *In 1979 another energy crisis took place which increased inflation of all other commodities. *At the end of this decade the sum of the inflation and unemployment which is called the misery index, was at an all time high (Friedman). Works Cited Note: The information from sections Politics and Law, and Wars and Foreign Relations comes from 1 with additional page number footnotes for each fact. 1 Foner et. al, ''Give Me Liberty!: An American History, (New York, W.W. 2004). Alan, Brinkley., et. al. American History: Connecting With the Past, (New York: McGraw-Hill, 1999), 848, 849. Brands, H. W., et. al. American Stories: A History of the United States, ''(New Jersey: Upper Saddle River/Pearson Prentice Hall), 843, 844. Clark, Gregory. ''A Farewell to Alms: A Brief Economic History of the World. Princeton: Princeton UP, 2007. Print. Friedman, Thomas L. The World Is Flat: A Brief History of the Twenty-first Century. New York: Farrar, Straus and Giroux, 2005. Print. James W. Davidson., et. al. Experience History: Interpreting America's Past, ''vol. 2 (New York: McGraw-Hill, 2011), 855 James W. Davidson., et. al. ''U.S. A Narrative History, ''vol.2 (New York: McGraw-Hill, 2009), 653, 655, 686, 689, 690. Roark, James L., et. al. ''American Promise: A Compact History, ''4th ed., vol. 2 (New York: New York City), 709, 710, 712, 713, 714, 715, 741, 750. Roy Rosenzweig., et. al. ''Who Built America?: Working People and the Nation's History, 3rd ed., vol. 2 (Boston:Bedfod/ St. Martin's, 2008), 739.